![]() Lastly, changes in cortisol levels, as well as neuroimaging findings (particularly of the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and insula), appear to be involved. In one study, participants with a low activity level of the neurotransmitter-metabolizing enzyme monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) and who were exposed to childhood abuse were found to be more likely to report conduct problems and hostility later in development. ![]() Gene-environment interactions also appear to be significant in the development of ODD. ![]() Genetic effects also appear to underlie the association between ODD with ADHD and depressive disorder. It is estimated that heritability of ODD is around 50%, and there is a substantial genetic overlap with conduct disorder (CD). The exact etiology of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is complex and often results from an interplay between genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. ![]()
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